Gender Analysis of Sports Presenters

Gender Analysis of Sports Presenters CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION The mindset of public towards the gender roles in sports Based on the findings in Chapter 4, the mindset of public in Kuala Lumpur towards the gender roles in sports is more open-minded in general. This means that the public in Kuala Lumpur believed that sports are not only males’ roles but it could be belonged to females too. However, there is only Gunther et al.’s (2011) study to support that the mindset of the public towards gender roles in sports is generally open-minded. From the findings, it is shown that the mindset of public disagreed that females are less knowledgeable and less competitive in sports as compare to males. This is supported by the study of Gunther et al. (2011), whereby the results shown that the public do not agree that females are less knowledgeable than males in sports. However, the findings of this study is contrasted by the study by Short (2012), in which it was mentioned that female sports broadcasters were seen as less competent and less knowledgeable in sports which showed contrast with the results of this study. In an interview, Kremer (2011) also mentioned that public often criticized that women do not know about sports, which also contradicted with the findings of this study. Although the mindset of public in Kuala Lumpur is open-minded, they believed males are the dominants and males are stronger in sports. This is supported by the outcome in the study of Centre for Gender Equality in Iceland (2006), which has clearly stated that sports have practically predominated by males or to say the attention is traditionally focused on males. Besides, the public in Kuala Lumpur also agreed that females show less interest in sports as compared to males. It is supported by the statement in Shine’s (2013) article where women are perceived as not interested and do not have the skills in sports. This could be because gender discrimination in sports has not been eliminated, which caused females not reaching a certain status in the public’s eye. In sum, the knowledge and the competency level of females in sports are not criticized in terms of their sex; however, males are still perceived as stronger and the dominants in sports. The reasons of males dominate in sports profession As the public perceived males are the dominants in sports profession, some reasons have been find out in this research. Based on the findings in this research, the reason of males dominates in sports profession is highly because males are biologically stronger than females. This is supported by the study conducted by Paulas (2013) where males are biologically stronger because of the structure of their body which differs from women. The research by Centre for Gender Equality in Iceland (2006) stated that biological nature is part of the consideration for males and females in participating sports. As sports emphasize a lot on physical strengths, females might be physically incompetent to participate in some sports because they are weak in strength. Toro and Sargent (2013) also concluded that males have the muscularity and superiority in sports because they run faster and jump faster than females. Males are overall more superior in sports. The public in Kuala Lumpur think that traditional gender roles are another major reason which leads to domination of males in sports profession. McMahon (2011) had given a statement that the nature of sports is masculine which is hardly related to feminine. Thus, this could be the reason that the public in Kuala Lumpur perceived sports as males’ gender roles. According to the research by Centre for Gender Equality in Iceland (2006), males have traditionally practiced to predominant in sports while females are not. In contrast, the public in Kuala Lumpur showed very slightly disagreed-to-neutral that sports show masculinity is the reason of males dominate in sports profession. According to Wilde’s study in 2007, sports are traditionally associated with males, masculinity and mainly dominated by the males. In the eyes of the public in Kuala Lumpur, sports maybe show masculinity, but that is not really a reason of why males dominate in sports profession. Moreover, the public in Kuala Lumpur does not perceive males as more superior in sports. In other words, both females and males are equal in sports. In the study of Paulas (2013), an argument has been raised up by saying that men are better than women in playing sports, which relates to the inherent biological features. However, females can be as skillful as males do because one’s skillfulness is related to how much instruction has taught to one in playing sports. In Grahame’s (2012) article also mentioned that, the biological differences in males’ body have made them more superior in most of the sports which differs from the opinion of the public in Kuala Lumpur. Besides, the public in Kuala Lumpur disagreed that the reason of males dominating in sports profession is because females are discourage to play sports. It is supported by Swanson (2009) where more females are encouraged to play sports after the enactment of Title IX in 1972 as compared to the past. 2012 Olympic Games, the women athletes have almost equal number as men and the ratio for athletes now is 50:50 male-female ratios (Gee, 2013). As Olympic Games is a worldwide sports, this could mean that females nowadays are encouraged to play sports universally. Furthermore, sports are not mainly designed for males in the view of the public in Kuala Lumpur. However, in the study by Paulas (2013), he found out that sports were designed for men at the first place. Sports such as basketball, football and baseball were created during the era where women were expected to stay in the kitchen and take care of the family. Sports were designed particularly based on males’ strengths and advantages where females can hardly beat males. As for most, the public in Kuala Lumpur do not believe that females are not competent in sports is the reason which caused males dominate in sports profession. Baiocchi-Wagner and Behm-Morawitz (2010) cited in their study that the public might be wrongly accused that females are less competent than males because males are better in playing sports. Also, Short (2012) also mentioned that women were seen as weak and less competent as compare to men which is not proven to be the truth. As nowadays more and more females started to step into sports profession, in which has proven that they are competent to compete with males in sports. Based on the open-ended data provided, the public perceived males are the dominant in sports because it is men’s interest. They are more passionate, enthusiast and willing to contribute their time in playing sports. In contrast, females do not like sports because they do not like to be exposed to the sun and sports are dirty and sweaty for them. In previous studies, it is shown that males show higher interest in participating, watching, and excelling in sports (Deaner et al., 2012). It concludes that males are more motivated to involve sports related activities which lead to the dominance of males in sports. An interesting reason that is concluded in the findings of this research is social and media influence. The preference of the social and media plays an important role in influencing the dominance of males in sports profession. The media coverage is more likely to focus on men’s sports than women’s sports. According to the study by Centre for Gender Equality in Iceland (2006), women’s sports are often treated as less important than men’s sports in media coverage. As a result, the public is able to be exposed to men’s sports more than women’s sports and to see males in sports has become a social expectation. In the study by Deaner et al. (2012) it was stated that sports interest is influenced by the societal gender roles, peers pressure, parents and so on. Thus, males will be more interested in participating sports while females have the social pressure to eschew sports. In the opinion of the public in Kuala Lumpur, education and parents’ influence also could be a reason of why males dominate in sports profession. As in the report by Garner (2012) stated that girls were being put off in Physical Education (PE) lesson because they have negative experience in participating PE such as being labeled as tomboy or unfeminine. Wetton et al. (2013) mentioned that the schools that favored boys’ sports activities have discourage girls’ attendance in participating sports. Other than that, parents do hold an important role in encouraging their children to involve in sports (Quinton, 2013). In the study by Wetton et al. (2013), the family background of the children and stereotypical view of parents do influenced children’s decision to not take part in sports. As the traditional mindset of gender roles in sports, parents might be more supportive for their sons to participate in sports but not for their daughters. Thus, there are more ma les involving themselves in sports than females due to the education and parents’ influence, in which has caused the dominance of males in sports profession. The level of opportunity of females to become sports broadcasters As concluded from the total scores of the level of opportunity for females to become sports broadcasters, the public in Kuala Lumpur believed that females have slightly high opportunity to become sports broadcasters. This has supported by Shine (2013) by saying that some organizations have started to hire talented female sports broadcasters because females can bring aspiring changes in sports broadcasting field. The public in Kuala Lumpur think that the opportunity is now given to females and females should be given equal opportunity to become sports broadcasters as males do. However, in the studies of Gunther et al. (2011) and Short (2012) showed that there are still inequalities in sports broadcasting field and this industry is lagging in creating equal opportunities for both males and females in becoming sports broadcasters. Although both of these studies are carried out in United States and England, but the public in Kuala Lumpur might be influenced by these leading countries. Besides, from the findings, it is shown that the public in Kuala Lumpur agreed that the opportunity for females on becoming sports broadcasters should be based on qualifications and skills rather than physical appearance. However, in the study of Gunther et al. (2011) found out that many stations are hiring attractive women regardless of their qualifications and skills just simply to retain their broadcasting license. The public acceptance of female sports broadcasters Moreover, this study has found out that the level of public acceptance of female sports broadcasters in Kuala Lumpur is high. The public did not particularly favored female or male sports broadcasters because they believed professionalism and knowledge of a sports broadcaster are important than one’s gender. Even for those major sports or male-dominated sports such as basketball and football, they do not think that only male sports broadcasters are good in reporting it. However, it is not supported by Shine (2013), where stated in her research that even though females are knowledgeable in male-dominated sports, the public will perceive females as do not have the skills to cover male-dominated sports. As in the study by Baiocchi-Wagner and Behm-Morawitz (2010) stated that women need to prove themselves twice to the public that they are worth as sports broadcasters. This has reflected that the acceptance of female in sports broadcasting field is very low. Many of the researchers have found out that the acceptance of female sports broadcasters were remaining low which contradict with this study. According to Futterman (2011), it has taken a long time for female sports broadcasters to be only partially accepted by the public. As long as gender discrimination and harassment still occurred, the acceptance of female in sports broadcasting will still low (Ebel, 2012). As time goes by, the difficulties or barriers for females have reduced, but the perception of the public on female sports broadcasters is stubbornly unchanged (Starphoenix, 2008).

Succubus Dreams CHAPTER 15

The doctors at the hospital said Seth's survival was a miracle. Which, of course, it was. The police officers who talked to all of us believed Seth's actions had been rash – but also admirable. Defending a fair maiden tends to elicit that reaction, and since Seth hadn't been killed, no one else viewed his gallant defense quite the same as I did. Because honestly? I thought it was stupid. I thought it was so stupid, and I was furious. Beyond furious. I'd surpassed it and moved into an uncharted area of enragement. What had he been thinking? â€Å"I wasn't thinking,† he told me in a low voice, when I questioned him in the ER. The others had stepped out for a moment, busy with other things, and it was just the two of us. Seth lay on the bed, face still pale, but otherwise alive and well. â€Å"That guy had a gun. You were in his line of fire.† I opened my mouth to argue the poor logic there, but one of the doctors stepped back inside. She needed to check Seth, and I backed out of the room before I said something I'd regret. Seth might have acted like an idiot, but he was in the hospital with a major injury. Blowing up right now probably wasn't the most appropriate course of action for the healing process. Instead, I sought out Vincent. After his interview with the police, he'd stationed himself down the hall, back against the wall and hands stuffed into his pockets. He tilted his head back, face staring miserably up at the ceiling. â€Å"Hey,† I said, careful to keep a safe space between us. He glanced down at me. â€Å"Hey. How is he?† â€Å"Fine – considering everything. The doctors are amazed the bullet ‘missed.'† Vincent turned away and gazed blankly down the hall. He stayed silent. I didn't know what to say. So†¦you're a nephilim. How's that working out? Frankly, I could guess how that was working out. Horribly. Nephilim were the offspring of angels and humans. Those angels were now demons, of course. You couldn't sleep around with hot humans and still play for heaven's team – as I'd noted with Yasmine. It was why Jerome had fallen. In what had to be the most unfair deal in the world, many nephilim had been hunted and killed by angels and demons – even their own parents. Heaven and Hell viewed nephilim as dangerous abominations. The fact that nephilim tended to have unruly natures and poor impulse control didn't really help their reputation. As a result of their persecution, nephilim usually walked the earth disguised, hiding the full brunt of their power – which rivaled their parents' – as well as the immortal signatures that could give them away. And while I felt bad for them, they nonetheless scared the hell out of me. Many of them held grudges against angels, demons, and anyone else immortal. Jerome's son Roman was like that. He had come to Seattle a few months ago and embarked on a revenge killing spree. Looking at Vincent now, I wondered if I was dealing with the same sort of thing. â€Å"Does†¦Yasmine know?† I asked after several more awkward moments. His eyes flicked back to me. â€Å"Of course.† He said it with the same matter-of-fact tone he'd used when we'd talked about their relationship. It was a tone that implied how could she not know? Like it was absurd that he would keep anything from the woman he loved. â€Å"It kills her,† he said with a sigh. â€Å"It's eating her up inside.† â€Å"Because†¦of†¦what you are†¦?† â€Å"No.† His eyes were so sad that I almost forgot he came from a race of uber-powerful psychopaths. â€Å"She doesn't care about that part. What she can't stand is that it's a secret. That she has to hide everything. You know they can't lie†¦but she's not exactly telling the truth either. It's deceitful, and she hates that. And I hate that she hates it. I've tried to end our†¦thing a couple of times, but she won't do it because†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Because she loves you,† I finished. Vincent shrugged and looked away from me again. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I told him at last. And I was. How horrible. Yasmine loving anyone was dangerous enough, but for her to love one of the most despised creatures in our world†¦well, yeah. That took it to an entirely different level. An angel should have been reporting Vincent's existence, not hiding it. Vincent turned his attention back to me. â€Å"Who will you tell? Carter? Jerome?† I stared into those dark, dark eyes, those eyes filled with so much sorrow and so much love. I stopped being afraid of him. He wasn't Roman. â€Å"No one,† I said quietly. â€Å"I'm not going to tell anyone.† He turned incredulous. â€Å"Why? You know what I am. You know you could get in trouble for hiding me. Why wouldn't you tell?† I thought about it. â€Å"Because the system is fucked up.† I went back to Seth's room after that, and when I stepped out into the hall later, Vincent was gone. He wasn't at my apartment when I returned home that night. Seth was released the following morning, and I stayed home from work with him. â€Å"I don't need to be coddled, Thetis,† he told me gently – though I could swear there was the tiniest hint of annoyance in his voice. â€Å"I'm fine. I won't break.† We were sitting in his living room, side by side on the couch. He had his laptop, and I had a novel. I folded a corner of the page I was on and shut the book. I wanted to tell Seth that he would break, that that's what it meant to be mortal. I wanted to tell him a thousand things, just like I'd wanted to in the hospital, but once more I swallowed my feelings. â€Å"You just need to take it easy,† I said. â€Å"And I want to make sure you don't do anything too crazy.† â€Å"Right. Because my usual lifestyle is so physically vigorous.† He had a point. Most of his days were spent sitting and writing. He wasn't too likely to burst another artery that way. â€Å"I just want you to be careful,† I said obstinately. â€Å"You were shot last night, remember? That's not the same as falling on the ice.† â€Å"You overreacted to that too.† â€Å"Is it so wrong to care about you?† He sighed and returned to his work. I had a feeling I wasn't the only one biting back angry words. We spent most of the day like that, talking little. Whenever he expressed any interest in something – food, drink, etc. – I was quick to jump up and get it for him. I was the perfect nurse/servant. Finally, around dinnertime, he looked like he was nearing a breaking point. â€Å"Arent your friends doing something tonight?† he asked stiffly. â€Å"Are you trying to get rid of me?† â€Å"Just asking.† â€Å"They're having a card game.† â€Å"You aren't going?† â€Å"No, I'll stay here with you.† â€Å"You should go.† â€Å"I don't want to leave you. In case you need something.† â€Å"Then take me with you.† â€Å"What?† I exclaimed. â€Å"But you need to – â€Å" † – take it easy, rest, not strain myself. I know, I know. But look, I'm kind of getting cabin fever here, and honestly, I think you'd benefit from a little distraction.† â€Å"Seth – â€Å" â€Å"Georgina,† he interrupted. â€Å"It won't be much different than this. More sitting around, except with – â€Å" â€Å"Better company?† â€Å"That's not what I mean,† he said. We went back and forth, and as we did, I wondered when we'd reached this point in our relationship. Hitherto everything had been giddy and sentimental with us. How had we crossed the line into nagging? When had we started getting on each other's nerves? In movies, life-threatening experiences are supposed to bring people together. I finally relented, and we went over to Peter and Cody's place. The gang – consisting of Hugh, Peter, Cody, and Carter tonight – was surprised to see us since Seth often avoided immortal social events. But socially inept or no, Seth liked playing cards. It was the kind of analytical activity he enjoyed, and he could often get by without talking very much. Just before the game started, Niphon showed up. He and I exchanged brief glares and then proceeded to ignore each other. Inevitably, Seth getting shot came up in conversation. â€Å"You threw yourself in front of a gun for her?† asked Peter, clearly impressed. â€Å"Well,† said Seth, a little uncomfortable at all those eyes on him. â€Å"Mostly I tried to jostle it away.† â€Å"You mean, disarm him?† â€Å"Well†¦no. More like†¦jostle. I don't really know how to ‘disarm' anyone.† â€Å"I figured maybe you took combat classes in order to write those fight scenes in your books,† explained Peter. Seth shook his head. â€Å"Never been in a fight in my life. Until last night.† â€Å"That's awesome,† said Cody. â€Å"Risking your life in the name of love.† I stared at the vampires disbelievingly while they babbled on about how amazing Seth's feat had been. They peppered him with more questions about the attack, and the anger I'd been trying to squelch since last night kept building and building. Across the table, Niphon listened with a smirk. Carter, in his usual way, concealed his feelings. I wanted to know why he wasn't out with the other angels, but the Seth thing was taking precedence over my curiosity. One thing struck me as odd. Hugh, listening quietly, seemed as angry as I did. I would have expected him to jump right in with the vampires, blithely pestering Seth for action-packed details and waxing on about how cool Seth's heroics had been. But the imp's face looked dark and stony, his eyes fixed pointedly on his cards. â€Å"The guy was probably high,† remarked Peter. â€Å"Never know what that might bring out. You jumping in like that was pretty ballsy when you think about it.† I couldn't take it anymore. â€Å"It was stupid!† I cried. Everyone's heads jerked in my direction. I ignored them, my eyes on Seth. â€Å"It was foolish and idiotic and, and – † I couldn't think of any more synonyms, so I let it go. â€Å"You shouldn't have done it. He couldn't have hurt me. He couldn't have killed me. You should have let me handle it!† I knew that Seth despised being the center of a commotion like this, but he returned my gaze with a surprisingly fierce one. â€Å"Georgina, there was a man with a gun in a dark alley. You were in front of him. Do you really think I was running through all sorts of logical scenarios at the time? ‘Oh, let's see. She's immortal, so even if she gets shot, there's nothing to worry about.'† â€Å"Yes,† I growled. â€Å"That is what you should have been thinking.† â€Å"What I was thinking was ‘The woman I love is in danger, and I would rather die myself than see anything happen to her.'† â€Å"But nothing would have happened to me!† â€Å"It's a basic human instinct to protect the ones you love. Even if they're immortal.† â€Å"That doesn't make any sense.† â€Å"That's because it's been too long since you were human,† he snapped. It was like being hit. I shot up from my chair and stalked off to the bathroom. Angry tears were welling up in my eyes, and I refused to let them show in front of my friends. Leaning my forehead against the mirror, I tried to do all the standard tricks for calming down. Deep breathing. Counting to ten. None of it worked. I didn't get it. I just didn't get it. And apparently, Seth didn't either. Why couldn't he understand? Getting shot – in my head, in my heart, whatever – would fucking hurt. The pain would be excruciating. But in a day or so, I'd recover. I'd go on. But Seth wouldn't. Why did he not see how serious this was? Death was forever. Squeezing my eyes shut, I tried to block out the image of Seth dead. Cold. Still. No more spark in those brown eyes. No more warm hand to hold mine. A sob built up in me, and I forced it away. After more deep breathing, I finally felt like I could return to the others. But as I stepped out of the bathroom and started to round the corner back to the kitchen, I heard more shouting. Hugh. â€Å"It was brave, okay? Noble. Gallant. Worthy of a gold star. But she's right. It was stupid. It was so fucking stupid, and you're even more fucking stupid for not realizing it.† â€Å"I get it,† said Seth. I could hear the weariness and exasperation in his voice. â€Å"I could have died. I know, okay? But I wasn't thinking about the larger workings of the universe. I was thinking about her.† â€Å"No,† said Hugh. â€Å"You weren't. I am so goddamned tired of hearing everyone talk about how hard it is to be you. They all go on and on about how amazing it is that you can handle this relationship with her. But, Christ. Really, what's hard about it? You have this beautiful, brilliant girlfriend who doesn't fucking age. She loves you. I know you can't have sex, and everyone acts like that's the end of the world, but come on. She's given you the green light to go get it somewhere else. I don't really see you suffering that much.† â€Å"What's your point?† asked Seth. â€Å"My point is that she's the one who suffers. She knows your life is a ticking time bomb. What have you got, another fifty years maybe? And that's if disease or an accident doesn't take you first. Fifty years, and you're gone. She has to live with that every day, knowing that in one breath, your life could be snuffed out like that.† I heard Hugh's fingers snap. â€Å"Not hurt. Not injured. Gone. She is going to watch you age, watch you gray and wither away, and when you do finally die, it's going to destroy her.† There was a moment's silence, then I heard Seth say uncertainly, â€Å"Fifty years isn't anything compared to the scope of her life. She'll get over me. As everyone keeps reminding me, she's immortal.† â€Å"All that means is that she has more time to mourn. If you had any fucking regard for her, you would have ended this stupid romance a long time ago. You would have never gotten involved. She was uncertain at first, but now she's in. She isn't going to give you up. You could turn into the world's biggest asshole, and she still wouldn't do it – not with all these romantic ideals she has now. She loves too easily – and gets hurt too easily.† I finally forced myself to move in the ensuing silence. Everyone looked away from me, except Niphon. He was obviously enjoying all of this. I sat back down, and the card game commenced. None of us were really into it, though. The atmosphere was stiff, the conversation forced and halting. It was the proverbial elephant in the room situation. When Peter awkwardly said he was getting tired, the rest of us practically flew out of our seats to leave. As I was putting on my coat, Carter strolled over to me. â€Å"Seth makes his own choices, as is his right,† Carter said softly. The angel was regarding me in that way that always sent chills down my spine. Someone wearing such an ugly baseball cap really shouldn't have that kind of ability. Honestly, how did his hats always get so dirty? â€Å"You can rage all you want, but in the end, mortals live their lives the way they decide to. It's not our place to interfere with that.† â€Å"Of course it is,† I said. â€Å"It's what you guys do. It's what we all do. That's the whole point of the Heaven and Hell battle – we purposely interfere with people's lives.† â€Å"Yes, but this is different.† â€Å"No, it's not.† Beyond him, I saw Niphon saying something to Seth. Great. The imp was probably trying to buy his soul. That was so not what I needed right now. I turned back to Carter. â€Å"Look, I've got to go. Say hi to the Get Along Gang when you see them.† I dragged Seth away from Niphon, and we headed home. I hadn't thought things between us could be any more uncomfortable than they had been at Peter's, but the car ride proved me wrong. Earlier, Seth and I had discussed him staying over at my place, but as I merged onto I-5, he asked, â€Å"I'd kind of like to get some more work done. Do you mind if I just go home?† The elephant had apparently joined us in the car now. I smiled tightly and kept my eyes on the road. â€Å"Sure. No problem.†

History of Football Essay

Football, American, distinct type of football that developed in the United States in the 19th century from soccer (association football) and rugby football. Played by professionals and amateurs (generally male college or high school teams), football is one of the most popular American sports, attracting thousands of participants and millions of spectators annually. The forerunner of American football may have been a game played by the ancient Greeks, called harpaston. In this game there was no limit to the number of players. The object was to move a ball across a goal line by kicking, throwing, or running with it. Classical literature contains detailed accounts of the game, including its rougher elements, such as ferocious tackling. Most modern versions of football, however, originated in England, where a form of the game was known in the 12th century. In subsequent centuries football became so popular that various English monarchs, including Edward II and Henry VI, forbade the game because it took interest away from the military sport of archery. By the middle of the 19th century football had split into two distinct entities. Still popular today, these two sports included the football association game, or soccer (the word being a slang adaptation of the three letters, s-o-c, in Association), and rugby, in which players ran with the ball and tackled. Modern football evolved out of these two sports. The Playing Field and the Ball The football playing field is rectangular in shape, measuring 100 yd (91. 4 m) long and 53. 5 yd (48. 9 m) wide. At both ends of the 100-yard dimension, white lines called goal lines mark off the entrances to the end zones. Each team defends one end zone. A team must carry, pass, or kick the ball into the 10-yd (9-m) end zone on the opponents’ half of the field to score. Lines parallel to the end zones cross the field at 5-yd (4. 5-m) intervals. These lines give the field a resemblance to a large gridiron. Another set of lines, known as the sidelines, runs along both sides of the field. In addition, two rows of lines, called hash marks, run parallel to the sidelines. The hash marks are 53 ft 4 in (16. 3 m) from each sideline in college and high school football, and 70 ft 9 in (21. 6 m) from each sideline in the National Football League (NFL). Each play must begin on or between the hash marks. Before each play, the officials place the ball either between the hash marks or on the hash mark closest to the end of the previous play. Situated in the middle of the rear line of each end zone are goalposts, consisting of a 10-ft (3-m) vertical pole topped by a horizontal crossbar from which two vertical upright posts extend. In college and professional football, the posts are 18 ft 6 in (about 5. 6 m) apart. The football consists of an inflated rubber bladder encased in a leather or rubber cover. The ball is an extended spheroid, having a circumference of 28. 5 in (72. 4 cm) around the long axis and 21. 25 in (54 cm) around the short axis. It weighs between 14 and 15 oz (397 and 425 g). Playing Time A game of football is divided into four periods, known as quarters, each consisting of 15 minutes of playing time. The first two periods constitute the first half; the second two comprise the second half. Between the halves, a rest period, usually lasting about 15 minutes, is permitted the players, who may leave the field. The teams change halves of the field at the end of each quarter. The clocks stop at the end of each quarter and at certain other times, when particular events occur or when designated by the officials. The Players Football is played by two opposing teams, each fielding 11 players. Each team tries to move the ball down the field to score in the end zone defended by its opponents. During a football game the teams are designated as the offensive team (the team in possession of the ball) and the defensive team (the team defending a goal line against the offensive team). Players involved in kicking situations are known as the special teams. The 11 players of the offensive team are divided into two groups: 7 linemen, who play on the line of scrimmage (an imaginary line designating the position of the ball) and a backfield of 4 players, called backs, who stand in various positions behind the linemen. The lineman whose position is in the middle of the line is called the center. On his left is the left guard and on his right is the right guard. On the left of the left guard is the left tackle, and on the right of the right guard is the right tackle; similarly, on the ends of the line are the tight end and the split end. The back who usually  stands directly behind the center and directs the play of the offensive team is known as the quarterback. In a balanced backfield formation, or â€Å"T-formation,† the fullback stands behind the quarterback, and the left and right halfbacks stand to either side of the fullback. Teams often use wide receivers in the place of tight ends, split ends, halfbacks, or fullbacks. Wide receivers line up on the line of scrimmage but wide of the rest of the formation. The defensive team consists of a row of linemen, who comprise the defensive line, a row of linebackers, and a collection of defensive backs, known as the secondary. The defensive line can use any number of players, though most teams use three or four linemen. Defensive linemen principally are responsible for stopping the opposition’s rushing attack and, in passing situations, putting pressure on the quarterback. The linebackers line up behind the defensive line and, depending on the situation, are used to stop runners, pressure the quarterback, or cover the opposition’s receivers. Teams usually employ three or four linebackers. The secondary is comprised of cornerbacks, who cover wide receivers, and safeties, who cover receivers, offer support in stopping the rushing attack, and pressure the quarterback. The secondary commonly consists of two cornerbacks and two safeties. Protective Equipment To protect themselves from the often violent bodily contact that characterizes football, players wear elaborate equipment, including lightweight plasticized padding covering the thighs, hips, shoulders, knees, and often the forearms and hands. Players also wear plastic helmets with guards that cover most of the face. The Officials Play is supervised by impartial officials. Professional and major college football programs use seven officials: a referee, an umpire, a linesman, a field judge, a back judge, a line judge, and a side judge. The officials carry whistles and yellow penalty flags. They blow the whistles or throw the flags to indicate that an infraction of the rules has been committed. The referee is in charge of the game at all levels of play. The referee supervises the other officials, decides on all matters not under other officials’ specific jurisdiction, and enforces penalties. The referee indicates when the ball is dead (out of play) and when it may again be put into play, and uses hand signals to indicate specific decisions and penalties. The umpire makes decisions on questions concerning the players’ equipment, their conduct, and their positioning. The principal duty of the linesman is to mark the position of the ball at the end of each play. The linesman has assistants who measure distances gained or lost, using a device consisting of two vertical markers connected by a chain or cord 10 yd (9 m) long. The linesman must particularly watch for violations of the rule requiring players to remain in certain positions before the ball is put into play. The field judge times the game, using a stopwatch for this purpose. In some cases, the stadium scoreboard has a clock that is considered official. Game Procedure At the beginning of each game, the referee tosses a coin in the presence of the two team captains to determine which team kicks off or receives the kickoff. At the start of the second half, these conditions are reversed—that is, the team that kicks off in the first half receives the kickoff to start the second half. During the kickoff, the ball is put in play by a place-kick from the kicking team’s 35-yd (32-m) line, or the 30-yd (27. 4-m) line in the National Football League (NFL). The NFL kickoff was moved from the 35-yd line in 1994 to increase the importance of the kickoff return. The kicking team lines up at or behind the ball, while the opponents spread out over their territory in a formation calculated to help them to catch the ball and run it back effectively. If the kick stays within the boundaries of the field, any player on the receiving team may catch the ball, or pick it up on a bounce, and run with it. As the player runs, the player may be tackled by any opponent and stopped, known as being downed. The player carrying the ball is considered downed when one knee touches the ground. Tacklers use their hands and arms to stop opponents and throw them to the ground. After the ball carrier is stopped, the referee blows a whistle to stop play and places the ball on the spot where the runner was downed. Play also stops when the ball carrier runs out of bounds. A scrimmage (action while the ball is in play) then takes place. Before scrimmage begins, the team on offense usually gathers in a circle, called a huddle, and discusses the next play it will use to try to advance the ball. A coach either signals the play choice  to the team from the sidelines, or the team’s quarterback chooses from among the dozens of rehearsed plays in the team’s repertoire. The defensive team also forms a huddle and discusses its next attempt to slow the offense. Each play is designated by code numbers or words, called signals. After the teams come out of their respective huddles, they line up opposite each other on the line of scrimmage. If the quarterback analyzes the defensive alignment and decides that the chosen play should be changed, the quarterback can call an audible and shout the coded directions for a new play. Play begins when the center crouches over the ball and, on a spoken signal, snaps it—generally to the quarterback—by handing it between his legs. Based upon the chosen play, the quarterback can pass the ball, hand it off to a teammate, or run with it. During the scrimmage, the players on the offensive team may check the defenders using their bodies, but they are constrained by specific rules regarding the use of their hands or arms. The player running with the ball, however, is allowed to use an arm to ward off potential tacklers. The offensive players check defenders, or try to force them out of the way, by performing a maneuver known as blocking. Good blocking is considered a fundamental technique in football. Perhaps the most spectacular offensive play is the forward pass, in which the ball is thrown in a forward direction to an eligible player. The ball is nearly always thrown by the quarterback, and those who may catch it include the other three backs and the two ends. A forward pass may be made only during scrimmage, and then only from behind the line of scrimmage. A lateral pass may be made anywhere on the field anytime the ball is in play. The defending team tries to prevent the attacking team from advancing the ball. The defending players may use their arms and hands in their attempt to break through the opponents’ line to reach the player with the ball. The defending team tries to keep the offense from gaining any distance, or to stop the offense for a loss by tackling the ball carrier before the ball carrier reaches the line of scrimmage. The offense must advance the ball at least 10 yards (9 m) in four tries, called downs. After each play, the teams line up again and a new scrimmage takes place. If the team on offense fails to travel 10 yards (9 m) in four downs, it must surrender the ball to its opponent after the fourth down. A team will often punt on fourth down if it hasn’t gained at least 10 yards (9 m) in its previous three tries. In punting, the kicker drops the ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. By punting, a team can send the ball farther away from its own end zone before surrendering it, thus weakening the opponent’s field position. Methods of Scoring. The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing team within the regulation playing time. In college football, a game can end in a tie if both teams have scored the same number of points at the end of regulation time. In case of a tie in an exhibition or regular-season professional game, the teams play an overtime period, known as sudden death, in which the first team to score is declared the winner. If neither team has scored at the end of this 15-minute overtime period, then the tie is allowed to stand. In professional playoff games no ties are allowed, and the teams play until one scores. A team scores a touchdown when one of its players carries the ball into the opposing team’s end zone or catches a pass in the end zone. A touchdown is worth 6 points. After a team has scored a touchdown, it tries for an extra-point conversion. This is an opportunity to score an additional one or two points with no time elapsing off the game clock. In college football, the offensive team lines up 3 yd (2. 7 m) from the goal line of the opponents and passes, kicks, or runs with the ball. A running or passing conversion in which the ball crosses the goal line counts for 2 points. A conversion by place-kick that propels the ball between the goalposts and over the crossbar counts for 1 point. In professional football, the offensive team lines up 2 yd (1. 8 m) from the goal line. A conversion attempted by place-kicking the ball is worth 1 point. In 1994 the NFL introduced the running or passing 2-point conversion. On offense, teams may also attempt to score by kicking a field goal, which counts for 3 points. A field goal is scored by means of a place-kick, in which one player holds the ball upright on the ground for a teammate to kick. For a successful field goal, the ball must be kicked between the goalposts and over the crossbar. After each field goal and extra-point conversion, the scoring team must kick off to its opponents. Finally, a defensive team earns two points for a safety when it causes the team on offense to end a play in possession of the ball behind its own goal line. If the offensive team downs the ball behind its line intentionally, in certain situations, such as after receiving a kickoff, the play is known as a touchback and does not count in the scoring. When the offensive team suffers a safety, it must punt the ball to the opponents to restart play. Modern Football American football was made popular by teams representing colleges and universities. These teams dominated the game for most of the first 100 years of football in the United States. Even today, despite greatly increased interest in professional football, intercollegiate contests—played by some 640 team—are attended by more than 35 million spectators each year. Many college stadiums hold more than 50,000 spectators; one stadium, at the University of Michigan, holds more than 100,000. Many of the major universities are now grouped in conferences, such as the Big Ten (northern midwest), the Big Eight (midwest), the Pacific Ten (western states), the Southeastern Conference, and the Ivy League (northeast). The birth date of football in the United States is generally regarded by football historians as November 6, 1869, when teams from Rutgers and Princeton universities met in New Brunswick, New Jersey, for the first intercollegiate football game. In the early games, each team used 25 players at a time. By 1873 the number was reduced to 20 players, in 1876 to 15 players, and in 1880 to 11 players, where it has remained. In the 1900s, college football became one of the country’s most popular sports spectacles. Ranked among the greatest United States sports heroes of the 20th century are such student athletes as Jim Thorpe of Carlisle Institute; George Gipp of the University of Notre Dame; Red Grange of the University of Illinois; Tom Harmon of the University of Michigan; Doak Walker of Southern Methodist University; Glenn Davis and Doc Blanchard, the â€Å"Touchdown Twins† of Army (the U. S. Military Academy); Joe Namath of the University of Alabama; and O. J. Simpson of the University of Southern California. In 1935 the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City established an award honoring one of the outstanding college football coaches in the country, John William Heisman. Heisman is credited with legalizing the forward pass in 1906. The John W. Heisman Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the outstanding college player of the year, as decided by a national poll of sportswriters. After World War II ended in 1945, college athletes began to receive football scholarships, often paying the player’s room, board, tuition, and incidental expenses while enrolled in college. College Bowl Games and National Champions. College teams generally play about 11 games during the fall. The best college teams are awarded trips to so-called bowl games, matching outstanding teams in games that conclude the season’s competition. The tradition was begun in 1902 at Pasadena, California, when Stanford University invited the University of Michigan to come to California for a New Year’s Day contest. This event soon became the celebrated Rose Bowl game. Bowl games now represent the climax of the college season. Other notable bowl games include the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas; the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida; and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana. In recognition of the great public interest in these games, major corporations now sponsor many of the bowls. Today, the champion college team is selected by national polls of coaches and sportswriters. In the accompanying table, the teams from 1889 to 1923 were Helms Athletic Foundation selections; from 1924 to 1930, Rissman Trophy winners; from 1931 to 1935, Rockne Memorial Trophy winners; from 1936 to today, Associated Press (AP) poll selections; and from 1950 to today, United Press International (UPI) poll selections. In cases where two teams won the honor in separate AP and UPI polls, a note has been made. Many members of the football community debate whether a poll of writers and coaches should determine a champion or whether the colleges should institute a more formal playoff system. Detractors of a playoff system argue that with such a system, the popular bowl games would lose their identity. In addition, players’ seasons would extend by one or two months, cutting into academic time. However, advocates for a playoff point to the controversial 1993 season in which the Florida State Seminoles won the number-one ranking over Notre Dame, a team that beat the Seminoles convincingly earlier in the season. Beginnings of Professional Football The first professional football game in the United States took place in 1895 in the town of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between a team representing Latrobe and a team from Jeannette, Pennsylvania. In the following ten years many professional teams were formed, including the Duquesnes of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; the Olympics of McKeesport, Pennsylvania; the Bulldogs of Canton, Ohio; and the team of Massillon, Ohio. Among noted college players who took up the professional game during its early years were Willie Heston (formerly at the University of Michigan), Jim Thorpe (Carlisle Institute), Knute Rockne (University of Notre Dame), and Fritz Pollard (Brown University). The professional game attracted only limited public support during its first 30 years. The first league of professional football teams was the American Professional Football Association, formed in 1920. The admission fee was $100 per team. The teams pledged not to use any student player who still had collegiate eligibility left, as the good will of the colleges was believed to be essential to survival. The teams also agreed not to tamper with each other’s players. Jim Thorpe, a player-coach for one of the teams, became president of the league during its first year. The American Professional Football Association gave way in 1922 to the National Football League (NFL). Red Grange, the famous halfback from the University of Illinois, provided a tremendous stimulus for the league when he joined the Chicago Bears in 1925 and toured the United States that year and the next. His exciting play drew large crowds. Thereafter, professional football attracted larger numbers of first-rate college players, and the increased patronage made the league economically viable. Strategically, the early NFL game was hardly distinguishable from college football at that time. There was no attempt to break away from collegiate playbooks or rule books. For 13 years the NFL followed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Rules Committee recommendations. In the league’s early years, players considered the low-paying NFL a part-time job and held other jobs during the day. Thus, while college coaches could drill their players daily for hours, professional football coaches arranged practices in the evenings, sometimes only three or four times a week. Development of Offensive Strategies The offensive techniques and formations prevalent in the contemporary game developed from the ideas of early and mid-20th century coaches such as Walter Camp, Alonzo Stagg, Pop Warner, Fielding â€Å"Hurry Up† Yost, Bob Zuppke, Knute Rockne, and Paul Brown. Following very few historical precedents, these men innovated unique strategies that changed the nature of football forever. Stagg, operating out of the early T-formation, originated the between-the-legs snap from center to quarterback and put a player in motion in the backfield before the snap of the ball. In 1906 Warner unbalanced his line, placing four players on one side of the center and two on the other side, while shifting the backfield into a wing formation. The quarterback functioned as a blocker, set close behind the line and a yard wide of the center. At the same depth, but outside the line, was the wingback. Deep in the backfield was the tailback, who received most of the snaps, and in front and to the side was the fullback. This formation became known as the â€Å"Single-Wing,† and it remained football’s basic formation until the 1940s. From the Single-Wing emerged Warner’s â€Å"Double-Wing,† with wingbacks set wide on either side of the line. This formation forced the defense to spread itself across the field in order to protect against the pass, thus creating favorable conditions for the offense to execute unexpected running plays. The strategy is the same as today’s â€Å"draw† and â€Å"end-around† concepts, but Warner’s teams could also pass from the formation. Warner would also open up the lines completely, splitting the ends into modern â€Å"slot† positions, inside the wingbacks. This was a four-receiver formation that evolved into the â€Å"Shotgun† offense, popularized by the San Francisco 49ers of 1960. Like the double-wing, the â€Å"Shotgun† utilized two wideouts and two slot players, with the passer set deep in the backfield next to a running back. The NFL’s newest formation of the 1990s, the â€Å"Run and Shoot† offense, also resembles Warner’s formation. With Warner’s innovations, wing formations came to dominate the NFL. Coach Zuppke at Illinois ran single- and double-wing formations, often sending four or five receivers downfield in pass patterns. Some teams would use a short-punt formation, with the quarterback and wings set on different sides, providing a more balanced look. At Notre Dame in 1923 and 1924, Rockne instituted his famous Four Horsemen offense. At the beginning of a play, Rockne set up the backs in a four-square, box alignment on one side. Then, in the famous â€Å"Notre Dame Shift,† the backs would shift out of the box and into a single or double wing. In later years, other coaches imitated Rockne’s innovation and achieved similar success. For example, former Washington Redskins’ coach Joe Gibbs implemented an offensive strategy called the â€Å"Explode Package. † Modeled after Rockne’s Notre Dame Shift, the Explode Package helped the Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins in the 1983 Super Bowl. In Gibbs’s system, the backs and receivers would jump into new positions before the snap, thus unsettling the defense. Although talented, the quarterbacks of the 1930s and parts of the 1940s seldom completed 50 percent of their passes, while many were even less successful. A major cause of these low percentages was the primitive nature of pass-blocking schemes. With little protection, passers always had to throw while avoiding incoming rushers. In the 1940s Paul Brown, the coach of the Cleveland Browns, installed a blocking system which transformed the passing game forever. Brown changed the system by arranging the linemen in the form of a cup. They pushed most incoming pass-rushers to the outside. Anyone who penetrated the line was met by a firmly planted fullback named Marion Motley. From that point on, the passing game achieved a new significance. Other teams implemented strong blocking lines, providing the quarterback with more time to release the ball. The contemporary game of the 1980s and 1990s is noted for its exciting and effective passing plays in both the professional and college ranks. Artificial turf, the surface in many of the nation’s stadiums, provides excellent footing for quarterbacks and receivers. With strong protection, talented quarterbacks make a perceivable difference to a game. For example, quarterback Joe Montana keyed the San Francisco 49ers’ three Super Bowl victories in the 1980s. Montana, who benefited from good protection, could instinctively read defenses and had the ability to deliver the ball accurately to his receivers while on the move. In college football, the University of Miami Hurricanes dominated the game in the late 1980s with a flashy passing game and a quick defense that could react effectively to the pass. Development of Defensive Strategies One striking aspect of modern football is its emphasis on defense as well as offense. This trend began after World War II (1939-1945), when college teams were allowed free substitution of players—that is, a player could enter and leave the game an unlimited number of times, as long as the ball was not in play during the substitution. This feature of the game led to the modern two-platoon system, in which one group of 11 players enters the game to play offense and a second group enters to play defense. Such a system has fostered the development of individual skills and specialization among players. Defensive football has acquired an extensive terminology of its own. In some ways defense is more complicated than offense, because defensive teams have fewer restrictions on their manner of lining up. Generally, however, the defensive formation is determined by the way the offense lines up. For example, when defending against opponents who are expected to throw many forward passes, a team might use a formation with a four-player line of two ends and two tackles. Three linebackers would stand directly behind the front four. In addition, two cornerbacks placed wider and farther back could defend against mid-range assaults. Two safeties would position themselves deeper to protect against longer aerial attacks. Most of the innovative thinking by coaches in the NFL during the 1970s came on defense. Offensive statistics plummeted as defenses dominated. The newer game demanded speed at every position, in addition to strength and bulk. Great linebacker units with catchy names such as Doomsday in Dallas, Pittsburgh’s Steel Curtain, Minnesota’s Purple People Eaters, and the Rams’ Fearsome Foursome dominated offenses. Teams turned the free safety position over to ferocious hitters such as the Raiders’ Jack Tatum and Dallas’ Cliff Harris. Rough, physical cornerbacks such as Pittsburgh’s Mel Blount and Oakland’s Willie Brown employed tight bump-and-run techniques on receivers downfield. Professional Football Today. The present-day NFL game is immensely popular. It is played during the late summer, through autumn, and into January. Professional teams play 4 exhibition games before the start of the regular season, followed by 16 games in the regular season and then playoff games, when they qualify for the playoffs. Teams play one game each week, using the time between games to recover, practice, and prepare for the next game. Each team receives one week without a game, known as a bye, during the season. The NFL is a big business for players, owners, advertisers, and other industries tied to the sport. NFL franchises generate huge revenues for host cities, in addition to promoting civic pride and national exposure. Thus, cities often compete for teams, offering prospective teams bigger and better stadiums, guaranteed fan support, and various economic incentives. In the 1980s three NFL teams relocated: the Raiders moved from Oakland, California, to Los Angeles in 1982; the Colts moved from Baltimore, Maryland, to Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1984; and the Cardinals moved from Saint Louis, Missouri, to Phoenix, Arizona, in 1988. Other teams have agreed to stay only with the promise of new facilities by their host cities. Throughout the years, other consortiums have sought to capitalize on the economic potential of the sport. For three years in the 1980s a new professional spring league, the United States Football League (USFL), competed with the NFL. The NFL lost players to the USFL, and NFL teams had to pay higher salaries to keep other players from leaving. However, the USFL soon folded, with much of its more talented personnel entering the NFL. Super Bowl The Super Bowl is the final contest of the professional season and determines the league’s annual champion. Currently the Super Bowl routinely finishes among the all-time top 50 programs in television ratings, and the 1994 game reached an estimated 750 million viewers around the world. Now probably the most important single-day sporting event in the United States, the Super Bowl had more modest beginnings. In 1967 the champions of the American Football League (which merged with the NFL in 1970) and the NFL met in what was called the AFL-NFL World Championship Game. The name was later shortened to Super Bowl, named after a child’s toy, the Super Ball. In this first game, the Green Bay Packers beat the Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10. The Los Angeles Coliseum, site of the game, fell far short of a sellout, although tickets were only $10 each. In comparison, the highest ticket price at the 1994 Super Bowl reached $250, with scalpers illegally charging more than twice that much. Rule Changes and Modern Developments The game of football has a history of constant rule changes. Rule changes have been implemented to bolster the excitement of the game of football and to increase the game’s safety. By 1906 the game was extremely rough, and many injuries and some deaths had occurred. Educators considered dropping the sport despite its popularity on campuses. United States President Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent advocate of strenuous sports, declared that the game must be made safer. As a result, football leaders revamped the game, and many of the rougher tactics were outlawed. In a constant attempt to maintain public interest in the game, NFL rulemakers review trends in their sport. For example, in the early 1970s, the rulemakers brought the hash marks in closer to the center of the field to give offenses more room to throw wide. The move, which increased scoring and made the game more exciting, also helped bolster the running game. Ten NFL runners gained more than 1000 yards in one season (1972) for the first time in history. During the next season, Buffalo Bills’ running back O. J. Simpson rushed for more than 2000 yards, the first time a player had gained that many yards in a single season. However, the passing game eventually suffered as defenses quickly adjusted. The Pittsburgh Steelers had a stranglehold on the NFL during the 1970s, with four Super Bowl victories. The dominant defensive athletes the Steelers put on the field shut down the wide-open passing attacks that had developed in the previous era. By 1977 scoring was the lowest it had been since 1942, while offensive touchdowns had fallen to their lowest levels since 1938. The rulemakers enacted serious measures after this low-scoring 1977 season, fearing a loss of public interest in the defense-dominated game. They established a zone of only five yards from the line of scrimmage in which a bump by a pass defender was permitted.

Womens Suffrage Timeline State by State